fig1

Figure 1. The scheme of LDL modifications. (I) Oxidation of native LDL with reactive oxygen species, reactive nitrogen species, cyclooxygenase 2, lipoxygenases, cytochrome P450 monooxygenases, myeloperoxidase, and lipoxygenase 12/15. (II) Enzymatic non-oxidative modification of native LDL by matrix metalloproteases 2 and 9, plasmin, trypsin, cholesterol esterase, chymases, sphingomyelinase, phospholipase A2, and cathepsins (cathepsin H, G, and F). (III) Desialylation of native LDL by endogenous sialidases, trans-sialidase, viral neuraminidases, and reactive oxygen species. (IV) Glycation of native LDL by excess glucose and nornicotine. (V) Carbamylation of native LDL with urea, cyanate, and thiocyanate with myeloperoxidase and H₂O₂.