fig3

Figure 3. The flow of ROS in the retina. Mitochondria respond to high energy demand in the retina by synthesizing ATP, a by-product of which is the potent ROS superoxide radical. Superoxide radical is converted to less reactive species through a sequence of enzymatic and non-enzymatic pathways. If mitochondrial ROS release exceeds antioxidant scavenging capacity, ROS accumulate in the retina and can react with macromolecules, including DNA and unsaturated phospholipids. Elevated ROS and oxidation-modified by-products elicit chronic inflammation, contributing to retinal pathologies like AMD. ROS: reactive oxygen species; AMD: age-related macular degeneration